Islamic extremists believe that the only governmen Essays - Islam

Islamic extremists believe that the only government should be the one controlled by their god, and the only laws in place should be those that are laid out in the Qur'an and the Hadith. Because of this, they believe that democracy, liberalism, human rights, personal freedom, international law, and international instructions are illegal, and go against god. Western society happens to go against these beliefs in just about as many ways as possible, causing Islamic extremists to target western societies. This is especially true for the United States, who is recognized by jihadis as the center of liberalism and democracy, things that islamic extremists don't want to spread. Islamic extremists, because of their warped world view believe that it is their duty to rid the earth of democracy or it will destroy true Islam. Their thoughts are filled with violence, and they are taught that the conflict between the United States and Islam is part of a universal struggle between good and evil, truth and falsehood, belief and infidelity that has been going on since the beginning of time. They do not believe that their problems with the western world can be resolved with peace, but believe violence to be the only true solution. Extremists are even taught that if they die fighting for the end of democracy they will be guaranteed a spot in a "paradise of unimaginable delights". Overall, Islamic extremists are taught to hate anything and everything that goes against their religious doctrine, the Qur'an and the Hadith. They think it is the only system of law or government there should be in the world. Western society goes against these traditions in almost every way possible, supporting women's rights, accepting homosexuality, and using secular democracy. This causes them to hate us deeply, as they are taught from birth that western people and society is the infidel, and must be killed to prevent the destruction of true Islam.

Sociological Concept Womens Social Standing

Sociological Concept Womens Social Standing Introduction Sociological concepts are specific ways in sociology of approaching any given phenomenon. They assist us to get insight picture of the social world that goes beyond justifications that rely on individual characters and idiosyncrasies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Sociological Concept: Women’s Social Standing specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More They also assist us to view the general social pattern of an individual’s behavior, and they usually presume that official justifications are self-serving and partial. Social perspective involves a conscious endeavor to go past what is obvious and question what is believed to be a common sense or what is believed to be true. It entails upholding objectivity by critically examining ideas, and accepting what may appear to be awkward or astonishing based on the substantiation. They study everything from actual elucidation to extensive generalization (Cha dwick, 2001). However, the early sociologists also presented a broad perception of the essentials of society. Their perceptions form the basis for the current theoretical paradigms or points of views, which offers them an orienting outline and an idealistic position for asking particular questions regarding social perspective. Paying closer attention to the concept of women’s social standing, gender aspects are now perceived as attributes of social structures influencing women’s roles and status in culturally and economically predetermined society. In addition, women’s status is also largely dependent on personal experience forming women’s outlook on their position in relation to men. Social Concept: Women’s Social Standing Due to the fact that members of society depend on social structures they live in, they strive to frame everyday situations in accordance with the rules dictated by a particular community. Currently, women are rigidly distinguish ed from men’ perception of social rules and concepts while being involved in social interaction. This is because they rely on different experiences creating specific frames and blocks of sociological concepts (Macionis and Gerber, 2009, p. 127). While considering women’s statuses in society, it is necessary to make reference to several aspects influencing their position and affiliation to a particular group. Aside from stereotypes ascribed to women, there are many other settings and conditions influencing their behavioral patterns. Depending on the status a women holds in society, she performs various roles, but when there is more than one social position assigned to a women, it can create a set of multiple roles. All these roles are closely associated with cultural and economic aspects providing shifts in social positions and roles. For instance, when it comes to developing countries, women are less bound to educational background, but are more affiliated to their fam ily roles being an important component of social identity.Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In contrast, high-income economies provide more opportunities for people to spend more years as students and exercise family roles less frequently (Macionis and Gerber, 2009, p. 129). These disparities influence women’s perception in various settings and when people strive to break those stereotypes they encounter a number of challenges. Understanding women’s social position in the contemporary society is especially vital because the social reality itself dictates what roles and statuses should be performed by female representatives in our world community. The concept of social reality shape women’s perceptions, beliefs, and outlooks affecting the nature and character of social interaction. In particular, women’s marital and familial roles can be dictat ed by culture, stereotypes, identities and economic situation in a certain environment. The situation concerns the aspect of equality aspect that differs from society to society whose impact is far from positive. According to the research provided by Das and Gupta (1995), the family structures and role set can have a huge impact on resource distribution between two sexes in the family (p. 92). Specifically â€Å"high maternal mortality†¦is associated with the patriarchal family structure which reduces women’s autonomy and their share of material and social resources† (Das and Gupta, 1995, p. 92). In this regard, inequality in social positions generates much more serious problems than it can be viewed at a glance. Despite the presence of fixed stereotypes apropos of the concept of women’s social standing, women’s roles and statuses are gradually changing with the emergence of certain movements and trends among which the globalization process is the mo st powerful one. In this perspective, Hooks (2000) recognizes that the possibility that feminism defined as social equality with men might easily become a movement that would primarily affect the social standing of white women in middle- and upper-class groups while affecting only in a very marginal way that social status of working-class and poor women (p. 19). While evaluating this statement, most of female issues are closely related to the firmly established cultural overlays that prevent women from building new behavioral patterns and performing new, more acceptable roles in the globalized society. At the same time, there are specific social positions that women are reluctant to drop because it can negatively influence their social and cultural identities.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Sociological Concept: Women’s Social Standing specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Women’s social position is largel y dependent on class, age, gender and ethnicity backgrounds. The construction of a particular identity is often based on personal experience, acceptance, and outlooks on the above-presented issues. With regard to this, Chrisler and McCreary (2010) have highlight male-female disparities concerning gender aspects and have stated that â€Å"women were viewed as appropriately marrying relatively early (between ages 19 and 24), as past their period of maximal responsibility at 40, and as having accomplished most of what they would accomplish by 45† (p. 570). The presented disposition reveals the differences in roles that women perform as compared to males who are more likely to take similar responsibilities at later stages. The influence of gender difference on social roles is also associated with behavior patterns that align with the demands and functions of the role. Within the established framework, it is worth stating that gender is not merely an indicator of biological featur es; rather, gender identifies the constantly re-created changes to individual socialization and social interaction. In this regard, gender is an important attribute of social structures. According to Brinkerhorf et al. (2007), biological differences can be reinforced by social stereotypes because men and women are often imposed by conceptions concerning how males and females should look like. Indeed, physical and biological characteristics can be considered the core aspects in assessing women in certain social practices, like sport, medicine, fashion, etc. Furthermore, â€Å"[g]ender is built into social structure when workplaces don’t provide day care; women don’t receive equal pay, fathers, don’t receive paternity leave, basket balls, executive chairs, and power drills are sized to fit the average man†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Brinkerhorff et al., 2007, p. 203). Interpreting this, producing changes to gender attitudes and roles can lead to social changes in case there a re simultaneous changes in social structures and gender issues. At the same time, as soon social structures undergo changes, gender roles are also influenced by shifts in perception. Discussing the Concept of Women’s Social Standing with Regard to Existing Theoretical Approaches Currently, sociologists employ three main perspectives or theories, namely: conflict, interactionist, and functionalist perspective. All these approaches can be disclosed through the concept of women’s social standing and its role in society. In order to understand this social perspective, it is necessary to consider the above-proposed theories in more detail with regard to the role of women in social interaction.Advertising Looking for essay on gender studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conflict theory Many sociologists refer to role conflict as a result of confrontation of two or more statuses hold by people. Women can experience role conflict when they are forced to take various directions while trying to respond to the statuses they currently take (Macionis and Gerber, 2009, p. 129). In this regard, conflict theory emphasizes material, social or political differences of a social group which analyzes the extensive socio-political structure, or which undermines ideological conservatism and structural functionalism (Thompson, 2005). This theory emanated from the sociology of crisis and social change. It is most commonly connected to Marxism as a response to functionalism. This theory focuses on conflict in the society; its discourse is on the occurrence of conflict and what causes conflict in the society. There are various modes of conflicts, one of them being that of revolution and warfare. These occur in phases because of rocky collations among different social c lasses. Domination is another mode of conflict in the conflict sociological perspective. Various social divisions tend to form different principles based on promotion of the welfare of their own class. Ideas of lower classes reveal the desire in their own lives while that of higher classes have more conceptual perspectives. Strikes in the current society have become a major social partition between the management and the employees in every organization (Macionis and Gerber, 2009, p. 131). Even if a woman takes a single social role, which is quite rare, it can also create tensions because of imposing various demands by other members of society. Role strain, hence, is a confrontation of roles attached to a single status. For instance, a woman can work as a teacher evaluating students’ achievements objectively and fairly. At the same time, she can behave more subjectively when treating her children. These two roles should not be confused; alternatively, it can lead to a role con flict. Fulfilling various roles connected to one status serves as a kind of balancing act. One approach to eliminating role conflict is separating dimensions of our life so that one can perform particular roles attached to one status and carry out other roles associated with another status in a completely different environment (Chrisler and McCleary, 2010, p. 571). The problem of role separations is specifically connected with separating family life from job and vice versa. Symbolic interactionist perspective Symbolic interactionist perspective is also referred to as symbolic interactionism. This kind of sociological perspective allows sociologists to consider the details and symbols of daily life, the meaning of these symbols and the way people interact with one another. It offers a serious thought on the manners in which people act, and seeks out to establish the meanings which people attach to their own deeds and symbols, also to those of others. There have been claims from criti cs that symbolic interactionist perspective does not take into account the macro levels of social understanding; in other terms, this perspective may neglect crucial issues in the society by directing more interest on the tree rather than the forest. For instance, it focuses more on the size of the ring rather than the quality of the marriage (Reynolds and Herman-Kinney, 2003, p. 173). There are also claims that symbolic interactionism also put less consideration on the influence of social institutions and forces on individual relations. When it comes to social interaction and women social position, symbolic interactionists refer to such concepts as ethno methodology and conversation analysis. These threefold relations are unveiled through consideration of meaning, language and social interaction, but in different ways. Hence, meaning implies the study of gestures, responses to those gestures and consequences of those interactions. Meaning can be presented beyond awareness of object ive existence of particular notions. Its objectiveness lies within a response scheme. Hence, there are certain gestures and acts that are predetermined by gender only making reference to cultural disposition, values and attitudes (Reynolds and Herman-Kinney, 2003, p. 174). Women’s social status imposes a number of such behavioral patterns and gestures indicating their roles and positions, which depend on cultural and social identities establish in a particular community. George Mead, an American philosopher introduced symbolic interactionism to American sociology in 1925 (Chadwick, 2001). Consider application of symbolic interactionist perspective to the institution of marriage; symbols may include a wedding cake, music, flowers, church ceremony and a bridal dress (Pacific Sociological Association, 2008). For instance, one partner may view the wedding ring as a mere expenditure while the other partner may view it as a sign of enduring love. Oral conversations, in which spoken words function as major symbols, make this personal understanding particularly apparent. The words bear some meaning for the sender, and they optimistically bear the same meaning for the recipient (Reynolds and Herman-Kinney, 2003, p. 180). In fact, anything can act as a symbol provided it refers to something beyond itself. Therefore, symbolic interactionism offers a serious thought on the manners in which people act, and seeks out to establish the meanings which people attach to their own deeds and symbols, also to those of others. Functionalist perspective Functionalist perspective has its center of attention on the input and output relationships and mental actions. It is based on the ideology that mental conditions are understood by effects of behavior, sensory stimulation and other inner acts. According to functionalism, the mental condition of a human being is not restricted to the biological systems of human organism; instead, computer and other non-biological systems, displa y functional relations that are similar to human biological systems and are believed to have similar mental condition. Specifically, structural functionalism is a broad theory which addresses social structure in terms of function of its basic elements including traditions, norms, institutions and customs. Additionally, it studies society as a structure with interconnected divisions (Pacific Sociological Association, 2008). This perspective has chronological resemblance with the application of scientific techniques in research and social theory. The structural-functionalist approach considers family as a social institution that carries out specific functions in society, like producing young generation, socializing, and providing emotional and physical care for family members. Accordingly, conventional gender roles also contribute to successful family functioning where women perform the role of managing houses and providing nurturing and emotional care to family members. However, rapi d social change and breakdown of a traditional social institution of family and marriage has led high rates of divorce, which is seen as the main social problem (Mooney, Knox, and Schacht, 2010, p. 157). In its turn, shifts in women’s roles and status within a family can also contribute to the problems of poverty, crimes, and substance abuse. Structural functionalism became very popular among the American sociologists between 1940 and 1954; it focused on ascertaining the functions of human behavior (Thompson, 2005). Robert Merton is one the American sociologist who divided human function into two kinds, namely latent functions and manifest functions. Latent functions are not apparent neither are they intentional, but, manifest functions are apparent and intentional (Ferrante, 2010, p. 29). Considering those functions, woman’s position in society can also be dependent on a latent and manifest functions perspective. For example, manifest function that each woman performs is that of a mother, a wife, or a daughter. These roles can be explicitly revealed in certain settings and they contribute to balance and stability in society. At the same time, performing a particular role, a woman can feel stressful due to excessive imposition of responsibility. Caring for children requires great responsibility and skills, which often lack because of experience gap and other issues. In general, women should strike the balance between the functions they perform to avoid dysfunctions and social changes these functions undergo. Apparently, feminism is the result of latent functions coming to the forth. With regard to the sociological concepts studied, functionalisms can disclose distinctive features of women’s perceptions, reactions that contribute to building behavioral patterns in various social frameworks (Macionis and Gerber, 2009, p. 127). Owing to the fact that mental states are not limited to a particular behavior models, they can be realized in numero us ways. For instance, a silicon-based machine could, in principle, have the same sort of mental life like that of a human being. However, this would only be when its cognitive system realizes proper functional roles. Hence, women’s role in a particular setting is largely predetermined by earlier established patterns that have been formed on at a mental level of perception. Conclusion The concept of women’s social standing is predetermined by women’s particular roles they perform in culturally and economically predetermined societies. Aside from traditions and stereotypical images attached to women and their place in social structures, they are often affected by gender, race, and age factors being the attributes of social structures as well. Furthermore, women’s social position considerably depends on educational background and personal experience that forms women’s values, outlooks, and beliefs in certain settings. Therefore, the presence of certa in sociological concepts assists people in understanding the social world going beyond judgments and justifications and relying on particular characters and idiosyncrasies. Additionally, understanding social roles of women contributes to better analysis of behavioral patterns existing in society that influence the overall appraisal of social constructions. Owing to the fact that all members of society depend on those social structures, they strive to frame life situations within the rules and clichà ©s dictated by a particular community. This issue considerably affects women because global shifts in perceptions influence specific social and cultural frames women got accustomed to. Reference List Brinkerhoff, D. B., White, L. K., and Ortega, S. T. (2007). Essentials of Sociology. US: Cengage Learning. Chadwick, R. (2001). Native Americans today: sociological concepts. Chicago: Harper Collins. Chrisler, J. C., and McCreary, D. R. (2010). Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology. US : Springer. Das, M. S., and Gupta, V. K. (1995). Social Status of Women in Developing Countries. New Delhi: M D Publications PVT LTD. Ferrante, J. (2010). Sociology: A Global Perspective. US: Cengage Learning. Hooks, B. (2000). Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center. US: Pluto Press. Macionis, J., Gerber, L. (2009). Sociology. Canada: Pearson Education Mooney, L. A. Knox, D., and Schacht, C. (2010). Understanding Social Problems. US: Cengage Learning. Pacific Sociological Association, (2008). Sociological concepts: SP: official publication of perspectives. New York: Routledge press. Reynolds, L. T., and Herman-Kinney, N. J. (2003). Handbook of symbolic interactionism. UK: Rowman Altamira. Thompson, K. (2005). Sociological concepts. New York: Penguin Group

Hand hygiene Critiquing an article using Quallitative technique Assignment

Hand hygiene Critiquing an article using Quallitative technique - Assignment Example s a seminal moment in the nursing field has been published; Karen Lee’s article â€Å"student and infection prevention and control nurses’ hand hygiene decision making in stimulated clinical scenarios and the use of hand washing, gel and glove† is one such articles. This paper shall candidly and comprehensively critique the aforementioned article. Firstly, research critique is an informed stepwise process of carefully and objectively gauging the weaknesses and strengths of a particular study with the particular motive of improving the research skills by effecting changes in the critiqued or apparently wrong or weak areas or sections. While there are many frameworks used in critiquing a research, this paper critiques Lee’s article using the step-by-step guide posited by Patricia Cronin, Michael Coughlan, and Frances Ryan (2007). To begin with, the title of a research should be precise, 15-20 words, contain key terminologies in the pertinent field, arouse curiosity and interest while attracting the readers’ attention. While the title of Lee’s research strives to be objective, Lee ends up with an excessively long title, 27 words, that is more general and lacking details as it simply mentions controlling of infections through hand hygiene in nurses and students. Shortening the title and adding more terminologies that will ground it in the nursing field will create a more professional look and make the article quite enlightening without the need to go into finer details in the body of the research (LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 2006). The author’s professional and academic qualification significantly determines their ability to deliver in a given field. Polit and Berk (2009) assert that the author’s attained domain, integrity and professional be reflected in a research article. Lee meets this threshold as he has an apposite academic, and proficient qualification in the nursing field having taught in a medicine school for 30 years. The article’s credibility,

Deep Vein Thrombosis PowerPoint Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Deep Vein Thrombosis - PowerPoint Presentation Example Immediate concerns with a diagnosis of DVT are stroke and pulmonary embolism, as the clot in his leg could break off and cause either of these potentially fatal situations. Mr. Roberts denies any chest pain, shortness of breath, fever, or headaches, indicating he is not currently at risk for these concerns. DVT Cause It is important to understand the cause of Mr. Roberts’s DVT to prevent future clots and to increase positive outcomes of his treatment. One of the biggest causes of DVT is surgery. Often times, surgeons can damage venous walls or intercellular matrix, releasing clotting factors and causing DVTs (sloc.org). Mr. Roberts has not had any recent surgery indicating that this is probably not the cause of his DVT. DVT can also be caused by obesity and a sedentary lifestyle (sloc.org). Mr. Roberts’s BMI indicates that this is probably the cause of his DVT. In order to prevent future DVTs, Mr. Roberts should be counseled about increasing daily physical activity, mak ing modifications to his diet, and the use of his hypercholesterolemia medication. Another potential cause of Mr. Roberts’s DVT is his hypercholesterolemia. Increased lipids in the blood can form clots, which can lodge in the deep veins of the extremities and cause a DVT in some cases (sloc.org). Mr. Roberts’s DVT is probably exacerbated by his discontinuation of his hypercholesterolemia medication, as this behavior would increase his lipids and potentially add to previous clots or form new ones. In addition to his treatment regimen, Mr. Roberts should be counseled on the dangers of quitting his hypercholesterolemia medication without consulting medical personnel. Treatment Regimen There are two parts to Mr. Roberts’s treatment regimen: initial treatment and maintained treatment. The purpose of the initial treatment should be controlling Mr. Robert’s partial thromboplastin time (PTT) and his INR while attempting to dissolve the clot in his leg. To achieve this, heparin is given initially in a bolus dose at 80 units/kg. After this initial bolus dose, Mr. Roberts will be on a maintenance dose of heparin at 16 units/kg. For Mr. Roberts, this means a 7000 unit bolus dose and a maintenance dose of 1640 units/hour which will continue for ten days. These doses were developed based on formulas posted on the accompanying powerpoint presentation, and were based off of calculated dosage weight (surgery.ucsf.edu). During these ten days, Mr. Roberts’s PTT needs to be monitored every 6 hours until 2 consecutive in-range tests are performed. Adjustments to the dosage can be made based on the provided chart. Once in range, PTTs need to be done every 24 hours. After ten days, Mr. Roberts should be evaluated and hopefully can discontinue his heparin regimen. The maintained treatment portion of Mr. Roberts’s treatment regimen is warfarin. When beginning warfarin, an initial INR needs to be taken in order to calculate an accurate dose. Ba sed on Mr. Roberts age, BMI, and use of hypercholesterolemia medications, 3mg was decided as an appropriate starting dose. Mr. Roberts’s INR should be measured daily and I have recommended an at home testing device. Mr. Roberts dose will need to be adjusted to make sure his INR falls in the target range of 2-3. Mr. Roberts will continue the warfarin daily until he can successfully maintain an INR of 2-3 without it. This should take between three and six months, but could potentially take longer

Write a research paper about Crime and Economics or Crime and Age, or Essay

Write a research paper about Crime and Economics or Crime and Age, or Crime and Race, or Crime and Gender, or Geographical impact on crime - Essay Example Great emphasis has been more on male criminality than female offenders. Gender and societal norms are among factors that attribute to gender crime gap and constantly regulate rate of crimes that women commit. Males as well as female usually commit crimes that involve substance abuse and property crimes. These kinds of crimes fall into the category of minor misconduct. It is vital to note that a number of crimes that are much serious in comparison to murder and robbery do exist. Crimes committed in the past few decades involved larceny, rape, and other minor misconducts. Trends are slowly changing, and the number of female criminality seems to be on the rise. Evans (2013) points that the number women arrested by police for law-breaking is par with that of men. However, it is essential to evaluate the kind and degree of crimes that each gender commits. It is astounding to note that the rise in female criminality includes crimes that involve forgery, fraud, as well as theft and not in traditional female crimes that include prostitution and child abuse. Besides the above reasons that attempt to explain the disparity in male and female criminality, it is essential to consider emotional strength and societal norms. The perception of diverse individuals is that men are physically stronger compared to women. Thus, they are capable of committing crimes, which are violent. Gender norms dictated and sustained by society seem to influence lower crime rate of female criminality significantly. Composition of femininity is usually within varied discourses that circumscribe the behavior of a woman, as well as the association that she has with different individuals (Korcha et al., 2014). Several factors governing a woman’s experience include her mind, body, as well as her social interaction. Some individuals equate femininity with independence and self-control. Thus, a normal woman, is one who is selfless, nurturing and caring regarding the needs of

Substitution reaction

Substitution reaction Introduction Substitution reaction of chemistry substitution reaction are also called displacement reactions .These are the reactions in which an atom or a group of atoms attached to a carbon atom in a molecule is replaced by some other atom or group of atoms without any change in the structure of the remaining part of the molecule. The product formed is known as the substitution product. The new atom or group which enters the molecule is called the substituent. Some example of substitution reactions are: CHâ‚„+clâ‚‚ → CHâ‚Æ'cl+Hcl Methane Methyl chloride Here H-atom of CHâ‚„ is replaced by chloride atom. CHâ‚Æ'-CHâ‚‚Br+KOH (aq) → CHâ‚Æ'CHâ‚‚OH+KBr Ethyl bromide Ethyl alcohol Here Br atom of ethyl bromide is replaced by OH group. CHâ‚Æ' -CHâ‚‚ = CHâ‚‚ → ClCHâ‚‚ -CH=CHâ‚‚ + Hcl Propene Allyl chloride Here H-atom of CHâ‚Æ' group is replaced by cl-atom Types of substitution reaction Depending upon the nature of attacking reagent, substitution reactions can be classified as below: a) Electrophilic Substitution Reactions : These are the reactions in which an atom or group in a molecule is replaced by an electrophile. Such reactions are shown by aromatic compound. CHâ‚…+HONO₂→ CHâ‚…NOâ‚‚+H â‚‚0 CHâ‚…+ NO₂→CHâ‚… NOâ‚‚+H â‚‚0 (H â‚‚s0 â‚„) Here Nitronium ion (NOâ‚‚ ions )acts as an electrophile and the process is called nitration. Mechanism. Consider the chlorination of benzene in presence of halogen carrier(Feclâ‚Æ') Feclâ‚Æ'+cl-cl → Fecl₄⠁ »+cl(chloronium ion) Electrophiles are involved in electrophilic substitution reactions and particularly in electrophilic aromatic substitutions: Electrophilic reactions to other unsaturated compounds than arenes generally lead to electrophilic addition rather than substitution. B) Necleophilic Substitution Reactions:- These are the reaction sin which an atom or a group in a molecule is replaced by a nuclophile. Such reactions are shown by alkyl halides. Consider the action of aqueous KOH on methyl chloride. HO⠁ »+H -CHâ‚Æ' Cl→ Ho-cHâ‚Æ'OH+cl⠁ » A nucleophile (literally nucleus lover) is a molecule or ion capable of acting as a Lewis base (i.e., an electron pair donor). Nucleophiles can be described as electron-rich while their targets or substrates can be described as electron-deficient (they are Lewis acids, i.e., electron pair acceptors). In a nucleophilic substitution the nucleophile takes the place ofor substitutes forsome atom or group on the substrate (called the leaving group): Nu: + R:L → R:Nu+ + :L- nucleophile substrate product leaving group If the nucleophile is neutral (as shown above) the product will be charged since the leaving group takes both bonding electrons away with it. If the nucleophile is an anion then the product will be neutral: Nu: + R:L → R:Nu + :L- Stronger bases make better nucleophiles (e.g., OH- is a better nucleophile than H2O). Good substrates include cations, central atoms with incomplete octets or double bonds (like sp2 carbons) or carbons with partial positive charges. Halogens are generally more electronegative than carbon and so organohalogen compounds are usually subject to nucleophilic attack at the carbon attached to the halogen (which would be the positive end of a dipole). For example, 2-chloro-2-methylpropane (commonly known as t-butyl chloride) will undergo nucleophilic substitution with hydroxide ion: (CH3)3CCl + OH → (CH3)3COH + Cl This is a typical synthetic route for producing an alcohol from an alkyl halide. Nucleophilic substitution reactions have been studied for many years. It was noticed fairly early that while the overall reaction was similar in the vast majority of cases the kinetics of the process was not always the same. In some substitutions the concentration of the nucleophile had no effect on the rate. In others, the rate was directly proportional to the concentration of the nucleophile. This suggested that two different mechanisms must be at work. The factor which determines the mechanism employed is typically the nature of the substrate itself and NOT the particular nucleophile. Necleophilic substitution reactions are further classified as:- 1)Necleophilic substitution Biomolecular :- Such reaction sare shown by primary alkyl halides and involve a single step. The breaking of C-X bond and the making of C-OH bond takes place simultaneously. The neucleophile approaches the C-atom from the side opposite to that carrying the halogen. In such reactions, an inverted product is formed. The reaction involves the formation of a transition state. The reaction follows the rate law, Rate=k[Alkyl halide][OH]. As the slow rate determining step involves two molecule(Alkyl halide and alkali); therefore, the reaction is known as bimolecular substitution reaction. Most necleophilic substitutions, which involve the expulsion of an originally neutral substituent ,notably of halogen, from the aromatic ring,at temperature which are not particularly high,use the biomolecular mechanism SN2. This is established by their second order kinetics, which are documented by many records, (NOâ‚‚)â‚‚CHâ‚Æ'†¢Cl+OEt⠁ »Ã¢â€ â€™(NOâ‚‚)â‚‚CHâ‚Æ'†¢OEt+Cl⠁ » In substitution of this type,the rate of attack by different reagent on the same aromatic molecules follow the general order of nucleophilic strength towards carbon. This is the conclusion to which Bunnatt and Zahler come after having assembled data from many sources. The first mechanism is known as SN1 (substitution, nucleophilic, unimolecular) because only one molecule is involved in the first stepthe rate determining step. Reactions occurring by this mechanism should exhibit first-order kinetics, i.e., the rate law should have the form rate = k[substrate]1. Because the nucleophile is not involved until after the slow step its concentration will have no effect on the rate. The alternate mechanism is called SN2 (substitution, nucleophilic, bimolecular) because two molecules are involved in the rate determining (and only) step. Such reactions exhibit overall second-order kinetics. The rate is proportional to both the concentration of the substrate and the concentration of the nucleophile. Reactions like this will have a rate law in the form rate = k[substrate] [nucleophile] 2) Nucleophilic Substitution Unimolecular:- This mechanism is generally followed by tertiary alkyl halide. In the first step, tertiary alkyl halie breaks hydrolytically to form intermediate carbonium ion. The formation of carbonium ion is the slow rate determing step. In the second step, the nucleophile attacks tha carbonium ion to form an alcohol. Consider the action of aqueous KOH or tertiary Butyl bromide. CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' ____ C-Br ⇄ CHâ‚Æ' C +Br⠁ » (Slow Step) CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' ____ C + OH⠁ » ⇄ CHâ‚Æ' C +OH (Fast Step) CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚Æ' (carbonium ion) Tert. butyl alcohol Or The best established eample of nucleophilic aromatic substitution by the unimolecular mechanism ,SN1,is the uncatalysed decomposition of diazoium ions,in hydroxylic solvent,to give phenols or phhenolic ethers,accomplished often byaryl halides or others such substitution products, if the necessary necleophilic anions are present in the solution: ArNâ‚‚+ → Ar+Nâ‚‚ (Slow) Ar+Hâ‚‚o →Ar†¢ OH+H (fast) Ar+ROH→Ar†¢OR+H (Fast) Ar +cl ⠁ »Ã¢â€ â€™ Ar†¢ Cl (Fast) These are SN1 mechanism . The alternate mechanism is called SN2 (substitution, nucleophilic, bimolecular) because two molecules are involved in the rate determining (and only) step. Such reactions exhibit overall second-order kinetics. The rate is proportional to both the concentration of the substrate and the concentration of the nucleophile. Reactions like this will have a rate law in the form rate = k[substrate] [nucleophile] 3) Free Radicals Subsitution Reactions[1.2.3] These are the reactions in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by a free radical. The replacement of H- atom by a halogen atom is an example of free radicals substitution.In the free radical substitution reaction, the attacking reagent is a free radicals. These reactions are carried either at high temperature or in the presence of ultra-violet light. In organic chemistry, a radical substitution reaction is a substitution reaction involving free radicals as a reactive intermediate The reaction always involves at least two steps, and possibly a third. In the first step called initiation (2,3) a free radical is created by photolysis. Homolysis can be brought about by heat or light but also by radical initiators such as organic peroxides or azo compounds. Light is used to create two free radicals from one diatomic species. The final step is called termination (6,7) in which the radical recombines with another radical species. If the reaction is not terminated, but instead the radical group(s) go on to react further, the steps where new radicals are formed and then react is collectively known as propagation (4,5) because a new radical is created available for secondary reactions. Mechanism. The mechanism of free radicals substitution involves three steps:- I) Initiation :- In this step, halogen molecule breaks homolyticallly to form free radicals. Consider the action of Brâ‚‚ on ethane in presence of sunlight. Br-Br Br II) Propagation step: The Br formed in the first step reacts with alkane molecule to form new free radicals which in turn reacts with bromine molecule and the chain react ion starts and so on. CHâ‚Æ'CHâ‚Æ'+Br →CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚‚+HBr CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚‚+Br -Br →CHâ‚Æ' CHâ‚‚Br+Br 3) Termination.: In this step, the free radicals combine and the reaction stops. Br + Br → Brâ‚‚ Similarly, consider action of Clâ‚‚ on propene. I) cl cl→ 2Cl II) CHâ‚‚=CH- CHâ‚Æ'+Cl→ CHâ‚‚=CH- CHâ‚‚+HCl CHâ‚‚=CH- CHâ‚‚+Cl-Cl→ CHâ‚‚=CH-CHâ‚‚Cl+Cl Substitution Reactions[1.2.3] Substitution Reactions. In an acid-base reaction such as CH3CO2H + NH3 → CH3CO2 + NH4+ the N acts as a nucleophile (Greek for â€Å"loving the nucleus), the H acts as an electrophile (â€Å"loves electrons†), and the O that accepts the pair of electrons acts as a leaving group. The acid-base reaction is the simplest model for a substitution reaction, which is a reaction in which a ÏÆ' bond between atom 1 and atom 2 is replaced by a ÏÆ' bond between atom 1 and atom 3. Substitution reactions are incredibly important in organic chemistry, and the most important of these involve substitutions at C. For example: This substitution reaction, discovered in 1849, involves the nucleophilic O making a new bond to the electrophilic C, and the bond between the electrophilic C and the leaving group I breaking. Any Brà ¸nsted base can also act as a nucleophile, and any nucleophile can also act as a Brà ¸nsted base, but some compounds are particularly good bases and particularly poor nucleophiles, whereas some are particularly poor bases and particularly good nucleophiles. Any Brà ¸nsted or Lewis acid can also act as an electrophile, but there are many electrophiles that are neither Brà ¸nsted nor Lewis acids (as in the example above). A haloalkane, e.g. CH3CH2Br, can in principle undergo either of two polar reactions when it encounters a lone pair nucleophile, e.g. MeO-. First, MeO- might replace Br- at the electrophilic C atom, forming a new C-O bond and giving an ether as the product. This is substitution, because the C-Br ÏÆ' bond is replaced with a C-O ÏÆ' bond. Second, MeO- might attack a H atom that is adjacent to the electrophilic C atom, giving MeOH, Br-, and an alkene as products. The electrons in the C-H bond move to form the Ï€ bond, and the electrons in the C-X bond leave with X-. This is elimination, because a new Ï€ bond is formed, and because the elements of the organic starting material are now divided between more tha n one product. Elimination requires that the substrate have a C-X bond and adjacent C-H bonds, while substitution requires only that the substrate have a C-X bond. Nucleophilic aromatic substitution reaction The name in the title in given to those substitution in whichnucleophilic reagent, such as Br⠁ », combine with aromatic carbon and aprecltyuviously present substituent such as †¢Cl,†¢NOâ‚‚, becomes expelled along with its bonding electrons With considerable difficultly even †¢H may be expelled with its bonding electrons i.e at H⠁ ». Biomolecular substitution reaction electron attracting substituent especially one conjugated with aromatic system such as nitro,carbonyl,syano aids the attack of the reagent and a 2-or 4-situated hetero atom ,as n pyridine ,acts in a similar way. Neuclophilic aromatic substtion can proceed by several,mechanism. The Unimolecular and Biomolecular mechanism can definitely be recognized and other mechanism some of which are understood,can be seen to exist. The unimolecular mechanism is limited to the replacement of those substituents which are sufficiently loosely bound to undergo spontaneous heterlysis in solution. The biomolecular mechanism is muc more general, doubtless because it make much less severe demands on thequality of the explled group,so that a hydrogen shift involved.

Woman Warrior :: essays research papers

In the book The Woman Warrior, by Maxine Kingston, a story of a girl trapped between the culture of her family’s past and the culture currently surrounding her is presented. The girl, Maxine, enters into conflict with her mother and what can be explained as an old and traditional China. Maxine’s own beliefs are found in the newer American way of life with her attempts to assimilate to the culture, making it difficult for her to feel any relation between the two very different environments. It is through these tribulations that Maxine is a â€Å"woman warrior† coming to age as a Chinese-American.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Maxine, being of the first generation of her family to be born in America, only knows about China from what she hears in her mother’s â€Å"talk-stories.† These stories are told to act as lessons on how the Chinese people were and should be, and are often vary critical. In â€Å"No Name Woman,† the tale of Maxine’s aunt who was shunned from her family for having an affair shows how careful young women must be when growing up in Chinese culture. â€Å"My aunt haunts me—her ghost drawn to me because now, after fifty years of neglect, I alone devoted pages to her†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (17). Maxine feels remorse and can relate to her aunt because she too feels a sense of alienation from her traditional Chinese and seemingly narrow-minded heritage.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With the start of â€Å"At the Western Palace,† an encounter between Brave Orchid, Maxine’s mother, and Moon Orchid, her other aunt, shows Maxine how far removed from Chinese culture she really is. The daily routines, clothing, foods, and the style of eating all seem normal to Maxine, but are a real culture shock for recently arrived Moon Orchid. The false assumptions about American life that her mother helped plague her mind with, begin to die. America represents the new life and change, which Maxine and eventually her family long to be a part of. â€Å"Oh, Sister, I am so happy here. No one ever leaves. We are all women here.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Though struggles about her mother’s talk-stories, and her experiences in America with her family, Maxine works toward knowing what it is to be a Chinese-American.